Blog - 6/28/09 - Sprawl
The definition of sprawl
The land use patterns that characterize sprawl
The types of developments characteristic of sprawl
Arguments opposing sprawl
Arguments defending sprawl
Potential solutions to combat sprawl
Florida’s mortgage and sprawl debacleThe definition of sprawl
Sprawl, also known as suburban sprawl or urban sprawl, is the spreading of a city and its suburbs over rural land at the fringe of an urban area. Residents of sprawling neighborhoods tend to live in single-family homes and commute by automobile to work. Low population density is an indicator of sprawl. Sprawling communities lack pedestrian friendly neighborhoods and do not have good public transportation options. Sprawl converts land covered by woods, meadows and streams into suburban housing developments thereby negatively impacting land and water quality. The term sprawl generally has negative connotations due to the health and environmental issues that sprawl creates. Residents of sprawling neighborhoods tend to emit more pollution per person and suffer more traffic fatalities. Sprawl is also linked with increased obesity since walking and bicycling are not viable commuting options.
The three land use patterns that characterize sprawl are car-dependent communities, single-use zoning, and low-density land use.
1. Car-dependent communities
Areas of sprawl are characterized as highly dependent on automobiles for transportation. Most activities, such as shopping and commuting to work, require the use of a car as a result of both the area's isolation from the city and the isolation the area's residential zones have from its industrial and commercial zones. Walking and other methods of transit are not practical; therefore, many of these areas have few or no sidewalks. In many suburban communities, stores and activities that are close by as the crow flies can be much further in practice, because the different areas are separated by fences, walls, and drainage ditches.The rise of the automobile is the main cause of sprawl. Cities where automobiles are the predominant transport deny their residents freedom of choice about the way they live and move around the city. The culture of automobile use has produced a kind of addiction to them. The more that people use cars, the more car use has to be maintained to remain 'normal'. When this happens, a dependency on cars is created.
There is a spiraling effect with automobile use where traffic congestion produces the demand for more and bigger roads and removal of impediments to traffic flow, such as pedestrians, signalized crossings, traffic lights, cyclists, and various forms of street-based public transit. These measures make automobile use more pleasurable and advantageous at the expense of other modes of transport, so greater traffic volumes are induced. Additionally, the urban design of cities adjusts to the needs of automobiles in terms of movement and space. Buildings are replaced by parking lots. Open air shopping streets are replaced by enclosed malls. Walk-in banks and fast-food stores are replaced by drive-in versions of themselves that are inconveniently located for pedestrians. Town centers with a mixture of commercial, retail and entertainment functions are replaced by single-function business parks, category-killer retail boxes and multiplex entertainment complexes, each surrounded by large tracts of parking.
These kinds of environments require automobiles to access them, thus generating even more traffic onto the increased roadspace. This results in congestion, and the cycle above continues. Roads get ever bigger, consuming ever greater tracts of land previously used for housing, manufacturing and other socially useful purposes. Public transit becomes less and less viable and socially stigmatized, eventually becoming a minority form of transportation. People's choices and freedoms to live functional lives without the use of the car are greatly reduced. Such cities are automobile dependent.
Automobile dependency is seen primarily as an issue of environmental sustainability due to the consumption of non-renewable resources (gasoline) and production of noxious fumes (carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide) and gases that trap the earth's heat and contribute to the potential of global warming (carbon dioxide and other hydrocarbons). It is also an issue of social and cultural sustainability. The private automobile produces physical separation between people and reduces the opportunities for unstructured social encounter that is a significant aspect of social capital formation and maintenance in urban environments.
Driving in certain New York City suburbs in Long Island, there are certain intersections where there are nine or more traffic lights hanging over the intersection, and where about 1,000 cars can be seen, but only one or two pedestrians (if any) are walking on the sidewalk.
2. Single-use zoning
This refers to places where commercial, residential, and industrial areas are separated from one another. Consequently, large tracts of land are devoted to a single use and are segregated from one another by open space, infrastructure, or other barriers. As a result, the places where people live, work, shop, and recreate are far from one another, usually to the extent that walking is not practical, so all these activities generally require an automobile.3. Low-density land use
Sprawl consumes much more land than traditional urban developments because new developments are of low density (number of people living per square mile). A common example of "low density" is that of single family homes, as opposed to apartments. Buildings in low density areas usually have fewer stories and are spaced farther apart, separated by lawns, landscaping, roads or parking lots. Lot sizes are larger, and because more automobiles are used, much more land is designated for parking. The impact of low density development in many communities is that developed land is increasing at a faster rate than the population. Another kind of low-density development is called leap-frog development. This term refers to the relationship, or lack thereof, between one subdivision, and the next. Such developments are typically separated by large tracts of undeveloped land (green belts), resulting in an extremely low average density. This is a recent phenomenon generated by the current custom of requiring a developer to provide subdivision infrastructure as a condition of development. Usually, the developer is required to set aside a certain percentage of the developed land for public use, including roads, parks and schools. In the past, when a local government built all the streets in a given location, the town could expand without interruption and with a coherent circulation system, because it had condemnation power (the power to seize a citizen's property without the owner's consent to devote it to public use). Private developers generally do not have such power (although they can sometimes find local governments willing to help), and often choose to develop on the tracts that happen to be for sale at the time they want to build, rather than pay extra or wait for a more appropriate location.1. Housing subdivisions
Housing subdivisions or “developments” are large tracts of land consisting entirely of newly-built residences. Housing subdivisions are sometimes called villages, towns, and neighborhoods by their developers, which is misleading since those terms denote places which are not exclusively residential. Subdivisions often incorporate curved roads and cul-de-sacs. Such subdivisions may offer only a few places to enter and exit the development, causing traffic to use high volume collector streets.2. Strip malls
Strip malls are collections of buildings sharing a common parking lot which contain a wide variety of retail functions (e.g. takeout food, laundry services, hairdresser). These developments tend to be low-density; the buildings are single-story and there is ample space for parking and access for delivery vehicles. Strip malls usually have roomy landscaping of the parking lots and walkways and clear signage of the retail establishments. They tend to be self-contained with few pedestrian connections to surrounding neighborhoods, and they are often built on a high-capacity roadway with commercial functions.3. Shopping malls
Another prominent form of retail development in areas characterized by sprawl is the shopping mall. Unlike the strip mall, this is usually composed of a single building surrounded by a parking lot which contains multiple shops, usually "anchored" by one or more department stores. The function and size is also distinct from the strip mall. The focus is almost exclusively on recreational shopping rather than daily goods. Shopping malls also tend to serve a wider (regional) public and require higher-order infrastructure such as highway access and can have floorspaces in excess of a million square feet. Shopping malls are often detrimental to downtown shopping centers of nearby cities since the shopping malls acts as a substitute for the city center.4. Fast food chains
Fast food chains are common in suburban areas. They are often built early in areas with low property values where the population is about to boom and where large traffic is predicted, and they set a precedent for future development. Fast food chains may accelerate sprawl and help set its tone with their expansive parking lots, flashy signs, and plastic architecture reinforcing a destructive pattern of growth in an endless quest to move away from the sprawl that only results in creating more of it.Eleven arguments opposing sprawl
1. Increased air pollution and reliance on fossil fuel
Air in modern suburbs is not necessarily cleaner than air in urban neighborhoods. The most polluted air is on crowded highways, where people in suburbs tend to spend more time. On average, suburban residents generate more pollution and carbon emissions than their urban counterparts because of their increased driving.2. Increase in traffic and traffic-related fatalities
A heavy reliance on automobiles increases traffic, increases automobile crashes, and increases pedestrian injuries. Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for Americans between the ages of five and twenty-four and is the leading accident-related cause for all age groups. Residents of more sprawling areas are at greater risk of dying in a car crash.3. Increased obesity
There is a significant connection between sprawl, obesity, and hypertension. Living in a car centered culture forces inhabitants to drive everywhere, thus walking far less than their urban (and generally healthier) counterparts.4. Decrease in land and water quantity and quality
Due to the larger area consumed by sprawling suburbs compared to urban neighborhoods, more farmland and wildlife habitats are displaced per resident. As forest cover is cleared and covered with surfaces that do not allow water to penetrate (concrete and asphalt) in the suburbs, rainfall is less effectively absorbed into the ground water aquifers. This threatens both the quality and quantity of water supplies. Sprawl increases water pollution as rain water picks up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, and other pollutants in runoff from parking lots and roads. Sprawl also fragments the land which increases the risk of invasive species spreading into the remaining forest.5. Standardized development
As strip malls with chain stores and fast food restaurants are thrown up haphazardly all over the country it becomes increasingly more difficult to differentiate a town in New Jersey from a town in Illinois from a town in Colorado. Sprawl deteriorates the local authenticity of a place.6. Developer Bias
Some developers aggressively promote sprawl for the profit motive. Residents are under no obligation to enrich developers to the detriment of their community.7. Neighborhood quality
Quality of life may be eroded by lifestyles that sprawl promotes. In traditional neighborhoods the nearness of the workplace to retail and restaurant space that provides cafes and convenience stores with daytime customers is an essential component to the successful balance of urban life. The closeness of the workplace to homes gives people the option of walking or riding a bicycle to work or school. Without this kind of interaction between the different components of life the urban pattern quickly falls apart. The poor aesthetics of suburban environments may make them places not worth caring about, and places that lack a sense of history and identity.8. White flight
Some blame suburbs for what they see as a homogeneity of society and culture, leading to sprawling suburban developments of people with similar race, background and socioeconomic status. They claim that segregated and stratified development was institutionalized in the early 1950s and 1960s with the financial industries' then-legal process of redlining neighborhoods to prevent certain people from entering and residing in affluent districts. Sprawl may have a negative impact on public schools as finances are pulled out of city cores and diverted to wealthier suburbs. They argue that the residential and social segregation of whites from blacks in the United States creates a socialization process that limits whites' chances for developing meaningful relationships with blacks and other minorities, and that the segregation experienced by whites from blacks fosters segregated lifestyles and can lead to positive views about themselves and negative views about blacks.9. Decrease in social capital
High density neighborhoods can foster casual social interactions among neighbors, while sprawl contributes to the decline in social capital by creating barriers and replacing public spaces with private spaces such as fenced-in backyards.10. Increased infrastructure costs
Living in a larger, more spread out space makes public services more expensive. Since car usage often increases in these areas and public transport often becomes significantly more expensive, city planners are forced to build large highway and parking infrastructure, which in turn decreases taxable land and revenue, and decreases the desirability of the area adjacent to such structures. Providing services such as water, sewers, and electricity is also more expensive per household in less dense areas.11. Increased personal transportation costs
Residents of low density areas spend a higher proportion of their income on transportation than residents of high density areas.Six arguments defending sprawl
1. Consumer preference for sprawl
Many households especially middle and upper class families have shown a preference for the suburban lifestyle. Reasons cited include a preference towards lower-density development (for lower ambient noise and increased privacy), better schools, less crime, and a generally slower lifestyle than the urban one. Some people argue that this sort of living situation is an issue of personal choice and economic means.2. Debate over traffic and commute times
Those who support sprawl argue that traffic intensities tend to be less, traffic speeds faster and, as a result, ambient air pollution is lower.3. Risk of increased housing prices
There is a concern that anti-sprawl policies increase housing prices. It has been suggested that zoning and other land use controls play the dominant role in making housing expensive.4. Freedom
There is a link between population density and the number of rules that must be imposed. As people are moved closer together geographically their actions are more likely to noticeably impact others around them. This potential impact requires the creation of additional social or legal rules to prevent conflict. A simple example would be as houses become closer together the acceptable maximum volume of music decreases, as it becomes intrusive to other residents.5. Crowding and increased aggression
There may be a link between increased population density and increased aggression. Some people believe that increased population density encourages crime and anti-social behavior. It is argued that human beings, while a social animal, need significant amounts of social space or they become agitated and aggressive.6. Housing starts
According to a press release from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development in May of 2009, privately-owned housing starts in April 2009 were at a seasonally adjusted annual rate of 458,000. This is 12.8% below the revised March 2009 estimate of 525,000 and is 54.2% below the revised April 2008 rate of 1,001,000. This means that in the twelve month period ending April 30, 2009 the U.S. construction industry started the construction of 458,000 new homes. Some of these homes were constructed in neighborhoods that already exist thereby making them denser in terms of population per area. Many of these new homes were located in new housing subdivisions sprawling into nearby farms and forests. Sprawl keeps people with construction jobs working. If you stop or curb sprawl it would hurt the economy because many of these workers would lose their jobs.Potential solutions to combat sprawl
Transit-oriented development is helping to reduce urban sprawl, mainly in cities which have light and heavy rail transit systems. The American Institute of Architects endorses smart, mixed-use development, including buildings in close proximity to one another that cut down on automobile use, save energy, and promote walkable, healthy, well-designed neighborhoods. Many other environmental organizations support investment in existing communities rather than building new ones. The state of Oregon enacted a law in 1973 limiting the area urban areas could occupy through urban growth boundaries. As a result, Portland, the state's largest urban area, has become a leader in smart growth policies that seek to make urban areas more compact. After the creation of this boundary, the population density of the urbanized area increased somewhat. While the growth boundary has not been tight enough to vastly increase density, the consensus is that the growth boundaries have protected great amounts of wild areas and farmland around the metro area.Florida’s mortgage and sprawl debacle
Florida’s modern economy has depended almost entirely on growth—that is, on new arrivals and the wealth they generate in construction and real estate. The problem is that no one knew what would happen if newcomers stopped coming. Florida is one of only nine states without an income tax so the state depends for revenue on real estate deals and sales taxes. Tampa’s mayor in 2009, Pam Iorio, said “we have to reassess the basis of our economy. A state that is so dependent on the ebb and flow of construction does not have a strong foundation for its economic future.” In the first decade of the 21st century, developers had a considerable amount of influence in Hillsborough County Florida, benefiting from a very costly urban-sprawl model. The county sold off agricultural land in places that are miles from the jobs.
An exurb is a region or settlement that lies outside a city (usually beyond its suburbs) and that is chiefly inhabited by well-to-do families. In exurban counties like Pasco county Florida, property taxes were kept low to attract homebuyers, and the schools and fire stations that new arrivals expected were often paid for with bond issues floated on the projection of future growth—a system that has been likened to a Ponzi scheme (a Ponzi scheme is any scam that pays early investors returns from the investments of later investors). Anyone buying and selling property in Florida in the middle of the decade must have known that the system was essentially a confidence game, that everyone involved was both being taken and taking someone else. Easy credit and mistrust are two sides of the same economy.
Flipping houses and condominiums in Florida turned into an amateur middle-class pursuit. People who drew modest salaries at their jobs not only owned a house but bought other houses as speculators, the way average Americans elsewhere dabble in day trading in the stock market. According to law-enforcement experts, drug dealers often become flippers, in order to launder money. According to mortgage-fraud experts, the straw buyer is typically paid a small slice of the flipper’s take and then disappears without moving in. A notorious fraudulent flipper in Florida had his deals financed by Wachovia, Wells Fargo, Bank of America, Lehman Brothers, Fannie Mae, and Freddie Mac. More than ten thousand convicted criminals got jobs in the mortgage business, including four thousand as licensed brokers, many of whom engaged in fraudulent deals. Until the rules were recently changed, felons in Florida lost the right to vote but could still sell mortgages.